Linguistics Plus Essay

A. The Backround Of Study In the preceding chapters , linguistics has been discussed mainly as the scientific study of languages. According to this view, linguistic is a theoritical, abstract, academic subject. It describes the nature of human language activity in scientific terms and linguistics are see to belong to different schools of thought and to hold competing linguistic theories. We have seen what this view of linguistics has to contribute to language teaching. There is another view of linguistics which cuts across all schools of linguistic thought and is common ground among all linguistics. In this view,linguistics is abody of attitudes and knowledge which result from the study of things like nature of language as a communicative, social activity : language in the individual , his speech mechanism and mental capacities for language : language in society : varieties of language , the rigorous description of particular languages , etc . This common ground the linguistics is immediately relevant to whole field of language teaching . B. The Formulation Of Study Based on the backrgound of study that explained, we formulate some problems that will be explained in this discussion, there are : 1. What is the meaning of psycholinguistics? 2. What is language acquisition? 3. is the first language learning the same as first language acuisition? 4. What is the interference from L1 in learning L2? C. The Perpose Of Writing To obtain a focused, it is necessary to tell the purpose of this paper. The purposes of writing this paper are: 1. Make the readers know about Psycholinguistic , language acquisition , First and second language, Motivation in L2 learning , and Language Interference. 2. Knowing the different between First and Secong Language D. Research Of Methodology. There are many methods that can be used in educational research, such as historical method, descriptive method, experimental method etc. We use the description method in order to meet the purpose of the research. CHAPTER 2 LINGUISTIC PLUS (CHAPTER 6 IN BOOK) A. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PSIKOLINGUISTIK As its name suggests, psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. Some of these are: how language is received and produced by language user : our memory span of language: motivation in language learning : how L1 Habits interface with L2 learning billingualism and mental development : the use of language in concept formation; and language acquistion or development. Seperti namanya, psikolinguistik adalah studi lapangan yang menggabungkan psikologi dan linguistik. Istilah itu sendiri diciptakan pada tahun 1951. Meskipun penelitian telah terjadi bahkan pada abad kesembilan belas dalam bentuk studi perkembangan bahasa. Ini mencakup berbagai macam topik yang menarik bagi guru bahasa. Beberapa di antaranya adalah: bagaimana bahasa diterima dan dihasilkan oleh pengguna bahasa: memori kita rentang bahasa: motivasi dalam belajar bahasa: bagaimana Kebiasaan L1 antarmuka dengan pembelajaran belajar L2 dan perkembangan mental: penggunaan bahasa dalam pembentukan konsep, dan akuisisi bahasa atau pembangunan. B. LANGUAGE ACQUISTION TRANSISI BAHASA The last mentioned topic is currently being much investigated by TG grammarians because their linguistic theory makes such on the language producing ability of human beings. It is therefore of interest to them, as it is to teachers, to find out how language is acquired. ( it may be noted at this point that they make a distinction between language acquisition or development and language learning . The first language or mother tongue is acquired, while the second language is learned. ) Topik terakhir yang disebutkan saat ini sedang diselidiki oleh banyak tatabahasawan tradisional grammar karena teori linguistik mereka membuatnya seperti bahasa dapat menghasilkan kemampuan manusia. Oleh karena itu sangat menarik bagi mereka, terutama untuk guru, untuk mengetahui bagaimana bahasa diperoleh. (Mungkin terdapat pada bahasan ini bahwa mereka membuat perbedaan antara penguasaan bahasa atau pengembangan dan pembelajaran bahasa asli atau bahasa ibu yang langsung diperoleh, sedangkan bahasa asing harus dipelajari. ) There are two theories of language acquisition: the cognitive-code learning theory f-voured by the transformational generative linguists and the habit-formation theory of the structural linguists. The habit-formation theory is in effect the aplication of learning theory to language acquisition. It involves conditioning and reinforcement to shape a response until it is like the model . An example mat make the process clear. An infant may accidentally produce what sound like â€Å"mama† ,on his babbling and the mother reinforces this by smiling , kissing, cuddling him.. This encourages him to produce the sounds again and the nearer they approach the word â€Å"mama† , the more pleasure the mother shows until the child learns to say the word correctly every time with reference to her. The whole process is described as â€Å" shaping† the response and strengthening it by selective reinforcement. The response is encouraged to recur or strengthened by the smile or nod , or whatever is reinforcing to the child. Repeated occurences of the response from habit. Imitation plays as important a role as repetition in the theory. The child imitates the adults he hears and is again reinforced for correct responses. This theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. Ada dua teori akuisisi bahasa: teori belajar kode kognitif mempelajari teori f-voured oleh ahli bahasa transformasi generatif linguistik dan teori-kebiasaan hasil pembentukan ahli bahasa struktural. Teori formasi kebiasaan yang pada kenyataannya aplikasi dari teori belajar akuisisi bahasa. Ini melibatkan pengkondisian dan penguatan untuk membentuk respon sampai seperti model atau contoh yang ada, misalnya sebuah kaset untuk membuatnya sebagai contoh. Contoh lain adalah Bayi yang dapat menghasilkan sebuah kata yang terdengar seperti â€Å"mama†, saat mengoceh dan ibunya memperkuat ini dengan memberikan senyuman, mencium,atau memeluk dia . Hal ini dapat mendorong dia untuk menghasilkan suara lagi dan semakin dekat dengan kata â€Å"mama† yang sebenarnya, respon senang yang ditunjukan ibunya itu terus ditunjukan hinngga anak belajar mengucapkan kata kata dengan. Seluruh proses yang digambarkan sebagai â€Å"pembentuk† respon dan penguatan dengan penguatan selektif. Respon yang didorong untuk muncul kembali atau diperkuat oleh senyum atau anggukan, atau apapun yang dapat memperkuat kepada anak untuk melakukan sesuatu. Kejadian yang diulang dari respon dan dari kebiasaan. Permainan meniru sama penting peranannya sebagai teori. Anak meniru orang dewasa, ia mendengar lagi dan diperkuat oleh respon yang diberikan orang disekitarnya. Teori pemerolehan bahasa didasarkan pada pandangan bahwa bahasa adalah perilaku yang dihasilkan dari kebiasaan dan kebiasaan yang dibentuk oleh praktek dan pengulangan. The cognitive-code learning theory states that language is rule-governed behaviour and that in language acquisition, the infant learns the set of rules that will produce the sentences of the language. How does he arrive at the set of rules? TG grammarians say human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which enables the child to form a series of hypotheses about the language which he hears , as he grows up. At each stage in his language development he tests his hypothesis (the set of rules he has formulated so far) against what he hears ( the language data) and revises it accordingly , until he reaches adult competence. But what does the LAD consist of? The theory is that it consists of those linguistic universals to be found the deep, deep structure of all languages. There is no agreement or certainty yet about what these universals are apart from the  fact that they must be certain abstract syntactic and semantic categories and relationships, though there may be a neurophysiological basis in the brain. Examples of such relationships which have been postulated are: those between noun and verb as in case grammar; that between subject and predicate; and catagories like NP , VP , Adv. These universals are said to be present in the structure of all languages but each language realises them in different way in surface structure and language learning consists in learning how it is done in that particular language . The linguists are making cross-cultural studies of language acquisition in order to get evidence of linguistic universals, but the data collected so far are still sketchy though certain features in language appear in about the same sequence and at about the same age all over the world. Teori Kode kognitif belajar menyatakan bahwa bahasa adalah aturan aturan perilaku dan bahwa dalam akuisisi bahasa, bayi mempelajari seperangkat aturan yang akan menghasilkan kalimat bahasa. Bagaimana ia bisa sampai pada seperangkat aturan? Tatabahasawan TG mengatakan manusia dilahirkan dengan perangkat penguasaan bahasa (LAD), yang memungkinkan anak untuk membentuk serangkaian hipotesis tentang bahasa yang ia dengar, saat ia tumbuh. Pada setiap tahap dalam perkembangan bahasa, ia menguji hipotesis tersebut (seperangkat aturan yang telah dirumuskan sejauh ini) terhadap apa yang ia dengar (data bahasa) dan merevisi (menerjemahkan artinya), sampai ia mencapai kompetensi dewasa. Tapi apa saja penyusun LAD itu ? Tidak ada kesepakatan atau kepastian tentang apa saja penyusun LAD tersebut dan tak ada yang terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa orang orang universal linguistik harus memastikan kategori sintaksis dan semantik abstrak, meskipun mungkin ada dasar neurofisiologi di otak. Contoh hubungan tersebut yang telah disebutkan adalah antara nomina dan verba seperti dalam tata bahasa, bahwa antara subjek dan predikat, dan kategori seperti NP, VP, Adv. Itu dikatakan terdapat dalam struktur dari semua bahasa, tetapi setiap bahasa menempatkan mereka dengan cara yang berbeda dalam struktur permukaan dan pembelajaran tertentu. Para ahli bahasa membuat studi lintas-budaya , untuk mendapatkan bukti yang umum tentang linguistik, tetapi data yang dikumpulkan sejauh ini masih samar meskipun fitur tertentu dalam bahasa muncul di sekitar urutan yang sama dan pada sekitar usia yang sama di seluruh dunia . The teacher of second language needs to take of these two theories of language acquisition since they have given rise to schools of thought on language teaching. If language acquisition is a matter of habit formation, then the language teacher must concentrate on performance. Let the pupils imitate a model and give them plenty of pattern drill to establish habits of behaviour. Reinforce them gor correct responses and elimitate wrong responses by a lack of reinforcement. Let them learn inductively, inferring the rules for themselves after much practice rather than receiving the rules for explanations at the begining. If, on the other hand, language acquisition is a matter of learning a code, then the language teacher must ensure that the pupils internalise the rules yhat will enable them to produce sentences. Explanations of the sentences structures and explicit knowledge of the rules must then play a larger rule in language teaching. Para guru bahasa kedua perlu mengambil dari kedua teori pemerolehan bahasa karena mereka telah melahirkan aliran pemikiran pengajaran bahasa. Jika akuisisi bahasa adalah masalah pembentukan kebiasaan, maka guru bahasa harus berkonsentrasi pada kinerja. Biarkan siswa meniru model dan memberi mereka banyak bor pola untuk membangun kebiasaan perilaku. Memperkuat mereka tanggapan gor benar dan elimitate tanggapan yang salah oleh kurangnya penguatan. Biarkan mereka belajar induktif, menyimpulkan aturan untuk diri mereka sendiri setelah banyak latihan daripada menerima aturan untuk penjelasan di awal. Jika, di sisi lain, penguasaan bahasa adalah masalah belajar kode, maka guru bahasa harus memastikan bahwa siswa menginternalisasi yhat aturan akan memungkinkan mereka untuk menghasilkan kalimat. Penjelasan dari struktur kalimat dan pengetahuan eksplisit aturan kemudian harus memainkan aturan yang lebih besar dalam pengajaranbahasa. How is the language teacher to decide between the two theories of language learning? What grammatical theory is most useful to language teachers? To answer these questions, i would just like to refer the reader to the paper by J. B Carroll that i cited in chapter 1. In that paper he says. â€Å"it would be pretentious to try to express an opinion on which of the various grammatical theories is most vailed. Different grammatical theories have somewhat different goals†¦ in general. I believe that language teacher should evaluate grammatical theories in terms of the degree to which they comform to the linguistic habits that actually enable a language user to speak and understand the language†. Bagaimana guru bahasa untuk memutuskan antara dua teori pembelajaran bahasa? Apa teori tata bahasa yang paling berguna untuk guru bahasa? Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, saya hanya ingin merujuk pembaca untuk kertas oleh JB Carroll yang saya dikutip dalam bab 1. Dalam kertas yang katanya. â€Å"Itu akan sok mencoba untuk mengekspresikan pendapat yang dari teori gramatikal berbagai paling vailed. Teori tata bahasa yang berbeda memiliki tujuan yang agak berbeda †¦ secara umum. Saya percaya bahwa guru bahasa harus mengevaluasi teori tata bahasa dalam hal sejauh mana mereka comform ke kebiasaan linguistik yang benar-benar memungkinkan pengguna bahasa untuk berbicara dan mengerti bahasa â€Å". As for theories of language learning. Carroll suggest a synthesis of the two. I am inclined to agree with him that neither a pure â€Å"audiolingual habit theory† nor a pure â€Å"cognitive-code learning theory† can be comprehensive and correct. Each of the theories contains elements of truth, and each therefore to some degree wrong or incomplete. We need to extract what is valuable for each theory and put them together. Carroll calls the synthesis â€Å"cognitive habit-formation theory†. Adapun teori belajar bahasa. Carroll menyarankan sintesis dari dua. Saya cenderung setuju dengan dia bahwa baik murni â€Å"kebiasaan teori audiolingual† atau murni â€Å"kognitif-kode teori belajar† bisa tidak lengkap dan benar. Setiap teori mengandung unsur kebenaran, dan masing-masing karena itu untuk beberapa derajat yang salah atau tidak lengkap. Kita perlu untuk mengambil apa yang berharga bagi teori masing-masing dan menempatkan mereka bersama-sama. Carroll menyebut sintesis â€Å"kognitif kebiasaan-formasi teori†. The audiolingual habit theory is correct in that language behaviour is partly a matter habits. The audiolingual method with its emphasis on pattern practice and formations of habits fell out of favour because the theory made the wrong assumtions about that kinds of habits to form and how to form them. Instead of forming habits that have to do. For instance, with substituting words in sentences or with changing one kind of sentences into another. teacher sould form functional habits. The diffferent between the two is that the former takes no account of language ude in actual situations (where is the occasion for substitution for tables in real life outside the classroom?) while the latter does. For example, in teaching commands and requests, it is not enough to present the learners with statements to be changed into commands or requests. The stimulus is the sentence in the case. In forming fumctional habits the stimulus is the situations, the intentions and the listener. In situation A, if you need help you just shout â€Å"help! † ; in situation B, you may say, â€Å"please help me† or â€Å"could you helm me? † ; in situation C, you may say, â€Å"would you mind helping me? † and so on. Teori Kebiasaan audiolingual benar dalam perilaku bahasa adalah kebiasaan sebagian materi. Metode audiolingual dengan penekanan pada praktek pola dan formasi dari kebiasaan jatuh dari nikmat karena teori membuat assumtions salah tentang hal itu jenis kebiasaan untuk membentuk dan bagaimana membentuk mereka. Alih-alih membentuk kebiasaan yang harus dilakukan. Misalnya, dengan mengganti kata-kata dalam kalimat atau dengan mengubah satu jenis kalimat menjadi lain. Guru arwah membentuk kebiasaan fungsional. The diffferent antara keduanya adalah bahwa mantan tidak memperhitungkan bahasa ude dalam situasi yang sebenarnya (di mana merupakan kesempatan untuk substitusi untuk tabel dalam kehidupan nyata di luar kelas?) Sedangkan yang kedua tidak. Sebagai contoh, dalam mengajar perintah dan permintaan, itu tidak cukup untuk menyajikan peserta didik dengan pernyataan yang akan diubah menjadi perintah atau permintaan. Stimulus adalah kalimat dalam kasus ini. Dalam membentuk kebiasaan fumctional stimulus adalah situasi, maksud dan pendengar. Dalam situasi A, jika Anda memerlukan bantuan Anda hanya berteriak â€Å"membantu! â€Å", Dalam situasi B, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"tolong bantu saya† atau â€Å"bisa Anda helm saya? â€Å", Dalam situasi C, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"bisakah kau membantu saya â€Å"dan sebagainya?. Carroll also points out that the audingual habit theory wrongly assumed that practice and repetion were crucial factors in the formation of habits. Although practice and repetition have certain roles to play, they are not crucial in learning. Succesive repetition of the same response is, in fact, generally the wrong way to â€Å"stamp in† a habit; there are few kinds of learning where this is effective. Evocation of the response on a number of aperiodic, widely-spaced occasions, with interpolation of different material in the intervals, is a much more effective method has been insufficiently employed in pattern drills. Carroll juga menunjukkan bahwa teori kebiasaan audingual salah diasumsikan bahwa praktek dan pengulangan adalah faktor penting dalam pembentukan kebiasaan. Meskipun praktek dan pengulangan memiliki peran tertentu untuk bermain, mereka tidak penting dalam belajar. Pengulangan berturut dari respon yang sama, pada kenyataannya, umumnya cara yang salah untuk â€Å"cap di† kebiasaan, ada beberapa jenis belajar di mana ini efektif. Kebangkitan dari respon pada sejumlah aperiodik, luas-spasi kesempatan, dengan interpolasi dari bahan yang berbeda dalam interval, adalah metode yang jauh lebih efektif telah kurang digunakan dalam latihan pola. The element of truth in the cognitive-codelearning theory is that a knowledge of the facts and formal rules of the language can really be of help in guiding the learner to form the right language habits. However, knowledge of the rule alone is of on avail unless the learner is given opportunities to form the habits in the way suggested above. Forthermore, the facts of the language should be presented in a form easy to understand, and appropriate to the learner’s age and ability. Abstract rule should be illustrated with a number of concrete examples. Unsur kebenaran dalam teori kognitif-codelearning adalah bahwa pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan aturan formal bahasa benar-benar dapat membantu dalam membimbing peserta didik untuk membentuk kebiasaan bahasa yang tepat. Namun, pengetahuan tentang aturan saja dari pada berhasil kecuali pelajar diberikan kesempatan untuk membentuk kebiasaan dalam cara yang disarankan di atas. Forthermore, fakta bahasa harus disajikan dalam bentuk yang mudah dimengerti, dan sesuai dengan usia peserta didik dan kemampuan. Aturan abstrak harus diilustrasikan dengan sejumlah contoh konkret. C. FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA PERTAMA DAN KEDUA A question often discussed with regard to second language learning is whether it is the same as first language acquisition. The answer depends on the stage at which the second language is learned. If it is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. First of all, the child is exposed to the first language all his waking hours while he probably hears the second language only during the class hour. Secondly, there is a big difference in motivation. A child learning his first language is strongly motivated because his needs and wishes are satisfied by the use of language and his control of his environment and himself increases with his increasing mastery of his mother tongue. Not only this, but emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. Thirdly, as the child learns the first language he is also learning the concepts, while in learning the second language he seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. Finally, the habits established in first language learning tend to inhabit and interfere with his learning of the second language. It is also claimed that there is a critical period for language acquisition which extends up to puberty. But according to Carroll: â€Å"the evidence for a ‘critical period’ and decline in language acquisition ability during the middle school years is not strong, however, and even if there is some decline. I am not persuaded that one must appeal to biology to explain it. † (p. 109) Krashen has since confirmed Carroll’s view. Suatu pertanyaan yang sering dibahas terkait dengan pembelajaran bahasa kedua adalah apakah pembelajarannya sama dengan akuisisi bahasa pertama. Jawabannya tergantung pada tahap di mana bahasa kedua dipelajari. Jika dipelajari pada usia dini sebelum bahasa pertama benar-benar terkuasai, atau hampir bersamaan dengan bahasa pertama, maka pembelajaran bahasa kedua sejajar dengan pembelajar bahasa pertama. Jika dipelajari pada tahap berikutnya dalam bentuk sekolah formal, ada beberapa perbedaan yang diamati. Pertama-tama, anak terkena bahasa pertama selama dia terjaga sementara dia mungkin mendengar bahasa kedua hanya selama jam sekolah. Kedua, ada perbedaan besar dalam motivasi. Seorang anak belajar bahasa pertamanya sangat termotivasi karena kebutuhan dan keinginannya terpuaskan dengan manfaat bahasa dan kendali lingkungannya dan dirinya sendiri meningkat dengan meningkatnya penguasaan â€Å"bahasa ibunya†. Tidak hanya itu, tapi hubungan emosional dan sosial terciptaka oleh penggunaanya terhadap bahasa pertama. Bahasa kedua jarang memenuhi fungsi tersebut bila dipelajari sebagai subjek dalam kurikulum. Ketiga, ketika anak belajar bahasa pertama dia juga belajar konsep, sedangkan dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua jarang ia harus membentuk konsep-konsep baru kecuali konsep-konsep itu asing bagi budayanya sendiri. Akhirnya, kebiasaan-kebiasaan pada pembelajaran bahasa pertama cenderung menghuni dan mengganggu pembelajaran bahasa kedua. Hal ini juga menyatakan bahwa ada periode kritis bagi penguasaan bahasa yang meluas sampai masa puber. Tetapi menurut Carroll: â€Å"bukti untuk ‘periode kritis’ dan penurunan kemampuan akuisisi bahasa selama pertengahan masa sekolah tidak kuat, bagaimanapun, dan bahkan jika ada beberapa penurunan. Saya tidak yakin bahwa seseorang harus menarik biologi untuk menjelaskannya â€Å"(hal. 109). Krashen sejak mengkonfirmasi pandangan Carroll. There is one respect in which learning a first language is similar to learning a second language: it is in the process itself. Just as the young child makes generalisations and says â€Å"foots† or â€Å"goed†, so the Malay learner of English as a second language may over-generalise and say â€Å"foot of the sky† when he means the horizon. In second language learning there is also imitation and modelling, just as there is in first language learning. Ada suatu kecocokan dimana pembelajaran bahasa pertama mirip dengan belajar bahasa kedua: yaitu dalam proses itu sendiri. Sama seperti anak muda yang membuat generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots† atau â€Å"goed†, begitu pula pelajar Melayu yang belajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua mungkin over-generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots of the sky† ketika ia bermaksud mengatakan â€Å"the horizon†. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua ada juga imitasi dan modeling, seperti yang ada dalam pembelajaran bahasa pertama. D. MOTIVATION IN L2 LEARNING MOTIVASI DALAM PEMBELAJARAN L2 It was mentioned above that there was a difference in motivation between first and second language learning. It is the lack of motivation that produces little or no difference in student performance in response to improved teaching methods or materials. This problem of motivation in second language learning has been studied and two kinds of motivation have been distinguished. One is called instrumental motivation: this is when the student learns the second language for instrumental purposes. For example, it may be a compulsory school subject or it may be required for post –graduate work, for his career or for travel abroad. There is no desire on his part to go beyond the language as a tool to fulfil rather limited purposes. The other kind of motivation is called integrative. In this case, the student learns the second language with the desire to identify himself with the native speakers and to enrich his life by contact with another culture. It was found that students with integrative motivation have greater success at learning the second language than those with merely instrumental motivation. Telah disebutkan di atas bahwa ada suatu perbedaan dalam motivasi antara belajar bahasa pertama dan kedua. Ini adalah kekurangan dari motivasi bahwa motivasi menghasilkan sedikit atau tidak adanya perbedaan terhadap prestasi siswa dalam menanggapi metode pengajaran atau materi. Masalah motivasi dalam belajar bahasa kedua ini telah dipelajari dan dua jenis motivasi telah dibedakan. Satu disebut motivasi instrumental: yaitu ketika siswa belajar bahasa kedua untuk tujuan instrumental. Sebagai contoh, mungkin suatu subjek sekolah yang wajib atau mungkin diperlukan untuk tugas pasca sarjana, untuk karirnya atau untuk perjalanan ke luar negeri. Tidak adan keinginan pada bagiannya yang melampaui bahasa sebagai alat untuk memenuhi tujuan yang terbatas. Jenis lain dari motivasi disebut integratif. Dalam hal ini, siswa belajar bahasa kedua dengan keinginan untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya dengan penutur asli dan memperkaya hidupnya dengan kontak dengan budaya lain. Ditemukan bahwa siswa dengan motivasi integratif memiliki keberhasilan yang lebih besar dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua dibandingkan dengan motivasi instrumental. E. LANGUAGE INTERFERENCE GANGGUAN BAHASA Another aspect of psycholinguistics that is directly relevant to second language teacher has been touched upon in discussing contrastive analysis. That is, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. The theory is that in learning L1 certain habits of perceiving and performing have to be established and the old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on. We noted in the last chapter that though such interference does occur, not all errors in L2 learning can be accounted for by interference from L1. L2 learning like L1 acquisition appears to proceed by stages when new bits of the language are imperfectly learned, giving rise to what has been called interlanguage. Aspek lain dari psikolinguistik yang secara langsung relevan dengan guru bahasa kedua telah disinggung dalam pembahasan analisis kontrastif. yaitu, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. Teorinya adalah bahwa dalam belajar L1 kebiasaan dalam mengamati dan performing harus dibentuk dan kebiasaan lama cenderung selingan dan mengganggu pembelajaran, sehingga siswa berbicara L2 dengan intonasi L1-nya atau urutan kata L1-nya , dan seterusnya. Kami mencatat dalam bab terakhir bahwa meskipun gangguan tersebut tidak terjadi, tidak semua kesalahan dalam pembelajaran L2 dapat dipertanggungjawabkan oleh gangguan dari L1. pembelajaran L2 seperti akuisisi L1 muncul untuk melanjutkan secara bertahap ketika bit baru dari bahasa tidak dipelajari secara sempurna, sehingga menimbulkan apa yang disebut interlanguage. CHAPTER III CONGCLUTION From chapter 2 in this report , we make some point : 1. Psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. 2. theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. 3. If the second is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. – different motivation. – Emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. Meanwhile, The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. – When we Learn first language, we also learn the concepts, while in learning the second language we seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. 4. The old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on.

LinkedIn

The evolution of social media has led to a dramatic change in the way people communicate professionally. In 2002, a professional networking corporation launched a business and employment website that has replaced the way individuals apply for jobs. The website named â€Å"LinkedIn† has made it easier for employers to find their employees. According to the Economist, â€Å"it is an online contact book† where one no longer finds the need to walk into a workplace with their resumes in hand when they can search for jobs from the comfort of their own homes. â€Å"LinkedIn connects individuals seeking or starting work, or simply wanting more from their careers†. Those seeking employment simply create a LinkedIn profile, listing valid information about themselves such as skills, qualifications, job history etc. This results in an online resume that can be viewed by other professionals and allows them to get in contact with you. According to one of its founders Allen Blue, it is a â€Å"network of people†; traditionally, employees seek employers. However, LinkedIn gives the employer the option to find the employee they are looking to recruit, making LinkedIn an online social network where employers and employees are able to connect with one another. In addition, LinkedIn has made it easier for companies to recruit persons with the required skills or assets by enabling the option to â€Å"actively search for Candidates around LinkedIn members by using keywords.† This means that employers can simply input the traits of interest and LinkedIn will provide a list of potential candidates that meet the employer's requirements. LinkedIn has created a massive change in the market for their labour-how they find jobs and how employers find them.While developments in social media have made it easier for individuals to find employment or recruit employees, it has also made it easier for employers to check up on the applicant that is about to undergo the hiring process. According to an article â€Å"56% of employers check applicants Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter etc.† While this process may be invasive to some, it allows the employer to make a good judgement before hiring someone who may not be the best fit for the job. An individual's behaviour may contradict the mission or purpose of the organization. For example, if the owner of a rehab centre is looking to recruit new employees, a person who posts content of alcoholic beverages in multiple pictures of their Facebook profile is not someone that would fit the job position or title accurately. Though the individual may meet the employer's requirements and expectations, they have failed to make an appropriate judgment on the types of content they release to the public eye. When employers check an individual's social media networks, it is not for the purpose of invading one's privacy, but to prevent them from making a decision they may regret in the future.In addition to posts on social media, employers impose limits on employees towards what they can and cannot post out into the public. This relates to socially unacceptable behaviour that can lead to affirmative action taken against the individual for not abiding with the company's rules, leading to termination. An aggressive comment towards another individual or group that may indicate violence or considered offensive would be in contradiction with the company's terms or regulations. The employee would then receive disciplinary action due to negative impact imposed on the company. Furthermore, socially unacceptable behaviour on social media includes political or religious views or stereotypes. For example, topics that your parents don't allow you to discuss at the dinner table, your employer does not want it discussed on social media. Certain words can get a lot of recognition on social media especially if used in an incorrect manner.(hatecrimes) This can cause disorder and damage relationships in the work place as well as the general public.

Chinese experimental theatre is a hybrid product characterised by a Essay

Chinese experimental theatre is a hybrid product characterised by a convergence of extra- cultural and intra- cultural - Essay Example One of the most famous theater directors in China’s avant-garde theater is Meng Jinghui. Meng Jinghui became attracted to Chinese literature while completing his secondary school education. Meng Jinghui became interested in acting while pursuing an undergraduate degree at the Capital Normal University. Meng Jinghui perceives that his debut into acting was a causal attribution of a metamorphosis in his life. Meng Jinghui’s initial acting part was that of a Kuomintang infantryman, it was a silent part. Meng Jinghui’s first speaking acting part was as a chef where he stated: â€Å"Meal time, meal time†. Meng Jinghui acknowledges that the art of acting open a window for him to all of the advanced cultures of the world and their diverse literary perspectives. As a college senior, Meng Jinghui was introduced to avant- garde playwrighting when he readapted the Story of Western Chamber. This was a Yuan dynasty romantic opera. Meng Jinghui adapted the romantic oper a into a modern comedy with three distinct endings. One of the endings was an adaptation of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. While studying at the university, Meng Jinghui was able to interpret works by Pinter, Ionesco, Beckett and Genet. Meng Jinghui learned that farcical theatrical presentations reaffirmed the concepts which he would late apply. These concepts consisted of injecting comedy and musical interludes into his playwrighting. In 1992, Meng Jinghui was able to find suitable employment with the National Theatre Company of China. This occurred consequent to his graduation from the Capital Normal University (China Culture 2006). In the years which followed, Meng Jinghui directed over ten major Chinese theatrical presentations. Meng Jinghui’s major theatrical presentations include: Comrade AhQ, Waiting for Godot, The Accidental Death of an Anarchist, Rhinoceros in Love, Si Fan, The Balcony, I love XXX and Bootleg Faust. Meng Jinghui’s specialty is to dissect the work of other playwrights, reinterpret them and then to aggregate a comical and musical perspective to them. Meng Jinghui’s specialty also includes the ability to interpret these works and to present them within the parameters of the requisites of the Chinese government (China Culture 2006). Many of China’s leading playwrights have selected Henrik Ibsen’s style of realism as the predominant style in theatrical presentation. Other playwrights are considered in the production of Chinese theatre. These playwrights are Anton Checkhov, George Bernard Shaw, and Constantin Stanislavsky. Henrik Ibsen’s style of realism is considered in the light of China’s socio- economic context (Zhao 2010). Meng Jinghui’s theatrical presentations also represents and appeals to members of the audience who advocate change irrespective of gender (Roberts 2006). One of the most highly acclaimed modern drams in Chinese theatre is Rhinoceros in Love. This d rama tells the story of a zoological park attendant whose name is Ma Lu. Ma Lu becomes romantically and erotically obsessed with a woman who is beyond his reach Mingming. Ma Lu in his incessant desire for Mingming displays a twenty first century aspect of Chinese theatre. This aspect contrasts physical desires and spiritual desires (National Theatre of China 2011). Rhinoceros in Love tells the story of Ma Lu’s desire and the beautiful and non reactive Mingming. In the drama, Ma Lu attempts to elicit desire and jealousy from Mingming y pretending to acquire two girl

Strategies in Action,Implementing Strategies and Finance and Growth Assignment

Strategies in Action,Implementing Strategies and Finance and Growth Strategies - Assignment Example CLS is basically about cost-related efficiency. Thus scale economies play a very significant role here. Selling a standardized product at a lower price to a large segment of customers is the underlying principle of CLS (Pretorius, 2008). While Starbucks being a network of high street coffee shops meets some of these requirements, its inability to keep prices low has been attributed to rising costs. In fact with Shultz assuming duties as the Chairman of the company in 1987, things began to improve at Starbucks and the trend continued till 2000 when he became the President. n the first few years of the current decade Starbucks faced some of the worst problems. In the first place, prices began to rise much faster and bureaucratic bungling hampered progress on many fronts. The current developments show that rising demands by employees for higher salaries and the addition of frills such as flavors have been the main cause of rising costs. Porter’s Generic Strategy requires such costs to be brought under control so that scale related economies become positive by way of reduced average costs and mass sales. Right now, unfortunately, it seems neither is happening at Starbucks and most probably this is partially due to the economic downturn. Despite Shultz’ efforts to bring down costs by curtailing pay and extra benefits to staff, there is a sizeable rise in the paychecks and the company is losing on the competition front. The competitive cost advantage is often attributed to scale economies and at Starbucks, it did not happen as of late. Porter has mentioned two dimensions – strategic scope and strategic strength – as essential factors for CLS to be achieved. The rest of the original cube of 27 points is no more in vogue. However, his emphasis on product differentiation and cost efficiency matters here because Starbucks had a troubled past and is just now emergent from its troubles with Shultz at the helm again as the CEO.  Ã‚  

Country Case Report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Country Case Report - Research Paper Example With the support of the named institutions, governments can collectively come up with a balance in there social programs competition so as to encourage social innovation and confidence. Globalization does not need plain trade-offs between social protection and competition. The ability of the respective governments as well as global institutions to take on collective actions has so far been underestimated to the extent that politics of globalization has to be reviewed and refurbished. This applies to the North Korean politics of globalization which has been experiencing both ups and downs (Carlin and Joel 102). Considering the domestic political economy of North Korea, the leadership of the country has in the past been the greatest worry to its economic reforms. Its foreign policy has in many ways ended up on the wrong side of the international bodies and other countries. A good example is the nuclear issue that created a hostile international environment working against its internal reforms. However, this should not be an excuse for the country not to have better reforms in relation to globalization. The domestic dynamics have a bigger role to play. The politics and leaders of North Korea have openly returned to an approach that is more controlled to economic policy. The changes in these policies have had significant implications on the North Korean strategies and intentions of economic commitment. Economic inducements like the joining the international financial institutions, sanctions lifting or engaging in regional cooperation that are more –formalized have not really worked out as most stakeholders wished it could. The current regime is in favor of targeted transfers that are to the advantage of the leaders. The transfers involve; heavy shipments of oil, direct cash payments and food aids (Noland and Gordon 90). This form of globalization can be considered as being hyperglobalists. As the economy of North

Process of Preparing an Electronic Portfolio Essay

Process of Preparing an Electronic Portfolio - Essay Example It is through the exercise of developing an electronic portfolio that I was able to have an understanding of the importance of the criteria for evaluation. The criteria for evaluation are put in place to make sure that every electronic portfolio serves the intended purpose. It is at this point that I was able to understand the principles that would be used to judge the quality of an electronic portfolio(Cambridge, 2012). Knowledge of the evaluation criteria was helpful in determining the exact content of the portfolio. As a result of knowing the evaluation criteria, I believe that I was able to make sure that all the needed competencies were included in the electronic portfolio. Presentation and organization of an electronic portfolio are always important aspects of the development process. For presentation and organization of my electronic portfolio I used Canvas  e-Portfolio. I was also able to realize that there are a number of alternatives that someone can use in the development of an electronic portfolio. It was through the process that I was able to realize that someone can opt for using required templates to develop an electronic portfolio (Gà ¼lbahar&Tinmaz, 2006). However, I came to the conclusion that the use of Canvas  e-Portfolio was the most appropriate for my case. Evidence of achievement is an important aspect of an electronic portfolio. Actually, I came to the realization that it is through evidence that someone can make sure that an electronic portfolio is as appealing and convincing as possible. The achievement included in an electronic portfolio should include details such as projects, any completed assignments, special projects completed, or evidence of any skills and experienced attained as a result of participation in workshops or conferences. It should be noted that before settling for any specific competencies and proficiencies, a person should list all the

Anthropology (movie) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Anthropology (movie) - Essay Example m, it is submitted that Marc Forster’s approach clearly mirrors Ebert’s review of the film by providing an engaging narrative with the overriding purposes to provide a socio-political commentary on the instability in Afghanistan through the presentation of complex cultural norms. Moreover, the film’s visual portrayal of Hosseini’s secular narrative in the book is precisely what resonates with the audience in the superimposition of â€Å"human faces and a historical context on the tragic images of war from Afghanistan† (Ebert, 2009:373). Ebert’s review of the film suggests a visual emphasis on presenting Afghan culture outside the presumptions of the war torn state (2009). This is supported by the scenes of the boys flying kites as a precursor to the loss of innocence, the burden of living with guilt and the need for redemption as symbolised through Amir’s character development after his betrayal of Hassan. As such, the cinematic portrayal of the relationship between Hassan and Amir with other boys in the kite flying season presents a novel perception of Afghanistan and Afghani culture prior to the â€Å"Taliban, the Americans and the anarchy† (Ebert, 2009:373). The film clearly presents this part of Afghan culture by using special effects to visually emphasise the freedom and importance of family bonding in kite flying. Additionally, Ebert suggests that the film presents the freedom and exhilaration of kites to their owners, which is utilised by Forster to underline the cultural and class divide between Amir as the kite flyer and Hassan as the kite runner. To this end, Ebert suggests that â€Å"perhaps that sad wisdom in Hassan’s eyes comes from his certainty that all must fall to Earth, sooner or later† (Ebert 2009:374). In watching the film, the vulnerability of the actor playing Hassan reinforces the precarious nature of his societal position as a Hazara in Afghanistan, which leaves him powerless in the shocking rape scene and its aftermath.

Mulholland drive Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mulholland drive - Movie Review Example thor that the reader will gain a more informed and realistic understanding of the mechanisms through which film the noir is presented; even within current film that has seemingly long forgotten the impact for importance of such a genre. Even though the film in question is one that is relatively new, it exhibits many of the same historical realities that early film noir helped to illustrate; thereby making it worth reviewing and understanding to a more full and complete degree. Firstly, and perhaps most importantly, Mulholland Drive presents the viewer with a strong and dynamic fin that fit all; within the character of Naomi Watts. The seething, dark, mysterious, and partially â€Å"unknowable† character that is presented to the viewer defines this film perhaps more than any other aspect that will be discussed within this brief analysis. Although it is true that strong and dynamic female leads exist in a litany of different films, the way in which Naomi Watts’ character is portrayed is specifically done as a matter of evoking an understanding of the dynamic femme fatale that was so prevalent and widely used during the heyday of the film noir era. Further, the heavy use of flashbacks and the narrated storyline that is presented at various stages throughout the film, not only helps to further the film noir aspects of Mulholland Drive, it also reinforces the Expressionism that is seen throughout the various points of the movie. Whereas many of the critics panned this particular movie due to the fact that it was too much a deviation from standard filmmaking, what they were noticing was the fact that the Expressionism used within the film was so strong and evocative that it helped to craft the story and build the suspense. A common core element of early film noir was the level and extent to which German Expressionism was referenced with regards to the development of the plot or the individual scene composition; as such, Mulholland Drive does not disappoint with

Physician Assisted Suicide Essay Example for Free

Physician Assisted Suicide Essay When a person voluntarily and intentionally helps another person to take away his life, by act or omission, this is referred to as assisted suicide. All parties, in clear cases, convey their intentions unambiguously and each individual who is involved make voluntary, informed and competent choice. The person assisting in suicide does not directly kill the person but rather he helps the person to kill himself or herself. The means of assistance adopts various forms which may include providing the means or removing the obstacles. Kopelman, 2007) Physician assisted suicide on the other hand is when a physician assists a patient in taking away his or her life. This kind of suicide has been marked with great controversies with various factions holding viewing it an immoral act while others view it as moral. This paper argues that under various restricted circumstances, physician assisted suicide should be permitted. The act of suicide is not contrary to societal norms as had been argued by many moralists. This can be historically supported. What is known about the ancient Greek society support the idea that suicide was largely acceptable. According to Plato, suicide becomes a justifiable and rational act if life became immoderate. In his view, intolerable constraints and painful disease were a justification enough for one to take away his or her life. Within a period of one hundred years after his death, his followers embraced suicide as a desirable way out. This attitude towards suicide extended to the Roman Empire. The Romans considered suicide with neither revulsion nor fear. To them, it was a deliberately chosen validation of the principles of life. (Weir, 1997) During the time of Justinian, a private citizens suicide was not punishable if the cause was sickness, weariness of life, impatience of pain or lunacy. Since this encompassed all rational causes, all that remained was irrational suicide which had no cause and hence punishable. However, suicide was frowned upon by the Pythagorean School of philosophy which was then a minority view. Nevertheless, there did not exist throughout classical antiquity the prohibition of suicide. Christians later adopted to prohibit suicide even though they found it increasingly difficult to support this view based on the scriptures. There are no verses in the scripture which directly condemn suicide. Christianitys change of attitude toward suicide was largely motivated by practicalities even though the concept of sanctity of life is theologically rooted. The cult of martyrdom could have rapidly led to actual suicide in the name of religion thereby leading to a decrease in the number of faithful who at that time was badly needed by the Church. As such, the Church viewed suicide as a threat to its survival since faithfuls were dying in worrying numbers. With regard to assisted suicide, it becomes very difficult to decide what is right especially when the permission to deliberately take away human life is involved. Under such extreme circumstances, normal moral rules are often stretched to the point of breaking down. There are various circumstances which test the moral wisdom of men such as the intentional suicide by a spy who is preventing torture for the disclosure of important military information. Many people would agree that under such circumstances, ending life would be legitimate. As such, it largely depends on the circumstances. This dependence on circumstances brings us to the issue of physician assisted suicide. My argument is that only under carefully limited circumstances should a physician be permitted to assist an individual to end unnecessary suffering. This may include directly administering drugs which will facilitate the end of the patients life or any means through which the patient can use to take away his or her life. Under certain circumstances, the patients choice may take priority above other considerations. For instance, when a person suffers from an incurable disease such that life to him has become series after series of pain and suffering, losing meaning and a sense of purpose, desiring nothing but death, then assisted suicide may be considered. After all considerations have been made, his choice to end his life should finally be honored. The physicians role is to act in the best interest of the patient, and under some extreme situations, this may include assisting the patient to end his life hastily upon his request. However, many doctors hold that their role is to enhance and preserve life and not to deliberately end it. Lhier, 2008) If the physician’s role is restricted to healing, this automatically disqualifies his role of assisting a patient to end his or her life. However, this fails to address the scope and limit of the proper functions of the physician. The challenge for the physician is finding the best way of assisting the patient to come from a state of extreme pain to a state of wellness. If this cannot be achieved, then the physician may assist the patient in ending this miserable life that is causing so much suffering for the soul. This will be a magnification of the role of the physician and not a contradiction. At times, it becomes preferable to end suffering than extending life and hence suffering. The troubling factor in assisted death is that it involves a conflict in values. As we are bound to comprehend life, it is a wonderful adventure which promises love, pleasure, happiness and joy. However, circumstances alter it into a hopeless burden full of pain, despair and suffering. Every human individual desiring well being but finds himself locked within a body which brings nothing but pain has a right to decide and end his life. Under such circumstances, death may be preferred. If an individual arrives at the conclusion that life brings more pain and suffering and hence desires to take it away, our duty is to grant such individuals their wish. However, we are forbidden to kill by moral imperative. Morality and religion dictates that it is wrong to kill. On the other hand, they both encourage mercy. Every effort should be invested at guarding against abuse even though at a patients request, it would be helpful and merciful to end his unendurable suffering. Legalization of assisted death for the sake of the victims and their loved ones is demanded of by compassion and benevolence. The families of those individuals who have witnessed their loved ones under extreme pain provide a powerful argument in support of physician assisted death. When death has not yet brought relief for the afflicted and medical science has stretched its capability to the limit to no vain, a sense of powerlessness and despair is experienced by the members of his family as they watch in horror as a loved one is tormented by suffering. Thus, opting for death under such intolerable situations would be advantageous not only for the victim but also for the family members. Assisted suicide is just an extension of individual autonomy which individuals seek to enact throughout their lives. (Battin et al, 2002) Every individual, in response to the many convictions which purportedly makes life worth living, act in such a way as to shape these convictions which are also held for how death should be experienced. Medical establishments only penetrate bodily ills without regarding various personal views. Assisted suicide is thus a way of bringing back the sense of control to individuals who are approaching the end of their lives. It is an extension of the freedom to pursue life as one desires as long as it does not harm others. For the patient, assisted suicide becomes a way of customizing death. Assisted suicide apart from honoring peoples right of self determination is also a prudent policy. It is with this regard that physicians are needed as counselors to ensure that a patient makes a competent, unforced and rational choice. Holding high regard for the moral and legal heritage, I contend that physician assisted suicide should be looked upon with much reflection. There are times which call for a rethought of our principles, traditions and codes so as to bring to the fore real life experiences. Those ideals which were designed with good intentions sometimes tend to degrade life, being a source of unfathomable suffering. Prohibiting physician assisted suicide may be one such thing. Individuals with extreme and rare cases can be provided with an opportunity to manage their death without jeopardizing our reverence for life. As such, a way of being merciful to the dying without labeling those who assist them as criminals can be provided.

Police Ethics and Deviance Essay Example for Free

Police Ethics and Deviance Essay This paper intends to define ethics and briefly discuss its role in policing. It also aims to talk about the ethical standards in policing. Last but not least, it will also cover the deviant behaviors, as well as, its effects. Ethics Defined Ethics is technically defined as â€Å"the practical, normative study of the rightness and wrongness of human conduct† (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 292).   It is upon which conduct is based (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 292). It determines whether or not an act is morally correct (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 292). Nature of Ethics and Its Role in Policing Meanwhile, with regards to the nature of ethics being a standard of moral correctness, it contributes largely in policing (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 292).   Explaining further, without ethics, a police officer will not be able to carry out critical thinking; it is only through ethical decision-making that he will arrive with the best solutions to any issue he or she is faced with (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 292).   In addition to that, through ethics police officers tend to become honest and when they stay honest they are, as well as, their respected departments are respected which allow their team to â€Å"recognize their full potential† (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 292). See, ethics is really important to policing because it helps police officers do â€Å"good† and the carry out the â€Å"right acts† all the time (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). Ethical Standards in Policing In fact, to keep the police force doing good and the right thing, the department has come up with ethical standards in policing (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). These include the following: The first one is known as the â€Å"organizational value systems† (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). This has been produced so that police officers are taught the correct behaviors that they ought to instill in themselves (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). It serves as a guide as to what behaviors are correct and ethical (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). The second is technically referred to as the â€Å"oath of office† (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). This is like a promise made by the police officers that they will act according to the laws/rules/etcetera stipulated in the oath (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). The third is technically known as the â€Å"Law Enforcement Code of Ethics† (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). This one is disseminated by the â€Å"International Association of Chiefs of Police† (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). The last which the police force is obliged to follow also is the â€Å"US Constitution† (US Supreme Court, 2008, n.p.). Of course, the â€Å"Bill of Rights† go along with the aforementioned as well (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). Both are known to be the basis of police ethics because of its â€Å"lawful† character; lawful indeed, since it is a collection of the â€Å"US Supreme Court, Federal, State Criminal Laws, as well as, Codes of Criminal Procedure† (US Supreme Court, 2008, n.p.). Deviant Behaviors and Its Effects However, it cannot be denied that despite so many ethical standards utilized and implemented by the police force, there are still some who do not accept and follow it (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 293). Some of the deviant behaviors committed and its effects are the following: A) Police Corruption â€Å"Police corruption† is technically defined as â€Å"an act involving the misuse of authority by a police officer in a manner designed to produce personal gain for himself or others† (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 296). Examples of police corruption are the following: 1) receiving money from â€Å"loan sharks, hijackers, etc†; 2) receiving money, free food, free accommodations, etcetera in exchange for services rendered; 3) accepting money in exchange of classified information provided to â€Å"criminals or private investigation firms†; 4) accepting payment in exchange of not having parking and traffic violators summoned; 5) etcetera (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 295). As expected corruption brings about negative effects and these include the following: 1) it only motivates others to practice corruption also especially if police officers realize that there is a slight possibility of getting caught; 2) the police department is affected and the public’s respect for it is lost; and last but not least 3) people will no longer respect the police officers and will not follow the rules implemented by them eventually as well (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 300). B) Police Misconduct Police misconduct is also included in the list of deviant behaviors committed by some of the police officers (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 303). This entails: â€Å"the use of illegal drugs; alcohol abuse; abuse of authority; sexual violence; as well as, domestic violence† (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 303). The effect of this is just like in the first deviant behavior discussed wherein people tend to lose their trust on the police force and eventually carry out deviant behaviors as well (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 303). C) Police Brutality Police brutality is also one of the deviant behaviors committed by some of the police officers (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 308). This is defined as the unfair and extreme use of force on suspects and other criminals (Mangan, 2000, n.p.). The effects of such include: 1) psychological trauma for the victim; and 2) he or she will later turn out to be rebellious and revengeful (Dempsey et. al., 2005, p. 308).